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Hermann Jakob Czernin von Chudenitz' Diplomatic Mission in Warsaw in 1695. A Contribution towards the Travel Arrangements of Imperial Diplomats 1
Jiří Kubeš
This paper examines the previously unknown diplomatic mission of Hermann Jakob Count Czernin von Chudenitz in Warsaw in 1695. Neither Polish nor Czech nor Austrian historians paid any attention to it. Based on this, however, it is possible to demonstrate perfectly how tense the relations between Emperor Leopold I and the Polish King John III Sobieski, who, at the end of their lives, were officially allies in the Holy League. The author first briefly introduces this mission and then, using it as an example, attempts to show how the travels of the imperial ambassadors of that time were organised and also unveils other additional aspects of the diplomatic service. Above all he reconstructed the court of Count Czernin, who was surrounded by over 80 people, and also located the place of his accommodation in Warsaw and showed which apartment the Count possessed as an ambassador. Finally, he examined the question of the financial costs of this stay, and documented the fact that the ambassador had to pay many expenses from his own pocket, and that this mission had cost him cca. 50,000 guldens. U p till now neither in the Czech nor in the Polish nor in the Austrian historiography has any work in regard to the diplomatic mission of Hermann Jakob Czernin von Chudenitz to Poland in 1695 originated. In the Czech environment this is not surprising, because until recently almost no one there was actually dealing with the diplomacy of the early modern period and this situation has only improved during the last five years by the publication of the results of the systematic research work that was carried 1 This study originated as a part of the solution of the GA ČR's standard project No. 13–12939S entitled Bohemian and Moravian Nobility in the Habsburg Diplomatic Service (1640–1740). At this point I would like to note that the final form of this study originated with the assistance of several friends and colleagues. The results of his research of personal correspondence from the 1690's were kindly provided to me by Petr Maťa from Vienna, for which I thank him very much. I am also grateful to Vítězslav Prchal (for the data obtained from the Viennese archives concerning the funding of Czernin's mission) and to both the reviewers of this article (for the other recommended literature).
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Hermann Jakob Czernin von Chudenitz’ Diplomatic Mission in Warsaw in 1695. A Contribution towards the Travel Arrangements of Imperial Diplomats
Jiří Kubeš
This paper examines the previously unknown diplomatic mission of Hermann Jakob Count Czernin von Chudenitz in Warsaw in 1695. Neither Polish nor Czech nor Austrian historians paid any attention to it. Based on this, however, it is possible to demonstrate perfectly how tense the relations between Emperor Leopold I and the Polish King John III Sobieski, who, at the end of their lives, were officially allies in the Holy League. The author first briefly introduces this mission and then, using it as an example, attempts to show how the travels of the imperial ambassadors of that time were organised and also unveils other additional aspects of the diplomatic service. Above all he reconstructed the court of Count Czernin, who was surrounded by over 80 people, and also located the place of his accommodation in Warsaw and showed which apartment the Count possessed as an ambassador. Finally, he examined the question of the financial costs of this stay, and documented the fact that the ambassador had to pay many expenses from his own pocket, and that this mission had cost him cca. 50,000 guldens.
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Social Prestige and the Stages of Contact during the Ambassadorship of Paul Anton Esterhazy
Katalin Schrek
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grant project "Bohemian and Moravian Nobility in the Diplomatic Service of the Austrian Habsburgs (1640-1740)", duration 2013-2017
Jiří Kubeš
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Count Ludwig von Zinzendorf's Diplomatic Mission to Saint Petersburg in 1755
Olga Khavanova
Count Ludwig von Zinzendorf’s Diplomatic Mission to Saint Petersburg in 1755, 2022
Count Ludwig von Zinzendorf is first and foremost known as an outstanding Austrian economist who greatly contributed to the national reform of finances and administrative efficiency. The early years of his career were spent in the diplomatic service under the guidance and patronage of Count Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz, who placed much hope in the ambitious young aristocrat. One of the significant episodes of Zinzendorf's diplomatic career was a mission to Russia in 1755. Its formal pretext was to convey the congratulations of the imperial couple to Empress Elizabeth I on the birth of the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Paul. At the same time, Zinzendorf was entrusted with a secret mission of learning more about the main vectors of Russian foreign policy, establishing more confidential relations with the rival groupings at the St. Petersburg court, and promoting closer joint action between Vienna, London, and St. Petersburg against Prussia in the inevitable continental war. The witty analytical mind and exceptional sociability of Zinzendorf allowed him to accomplish both missions brilliantly, the results of which he reported to Kaunitz. This paper considers both the official and unofficial activities of the imperial and Austrian envoy during his visit, the complications he faced, and the solutions he found during his two journeys to Russia in 1755 against the backdrop of Austrian-Russian relations in their heyday on the eve of the Seven Years' War.
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Diplomats and Diplomacy in the Early Modern Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (XVII Century)
Dorota Gregorowicz
Eastern European History Review, 2021
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Diplomacy of the Commonwealth, Diplomacy of the King: the Peculiarity of Foreign Policy Making in the Seventeenth Century Poland-Lithuania
Dorota Gregorowicz
Eastern European History Review, 2021
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth clearly stood out from the European institutional and legal systems of the early modern era. One of the elements of its “uniqueness” was the way of conducting foreign policy and, consequently, the organisation of diplomatic service. The Western European historiography does not address the peculiar structure of the Polish-Lithuanian diplomacy against early modern interstate relations. The only commonly noted characteristic of the diplomatic practice of the Commonwealth seems to be the lack of official permanent representations at European courts, as well as the reluctance to accept foreign embassies within the borders of the state. The Polish historiography does undertake the topic, but the existing works are dated and often overcome, requiring to be complimented. The purpose of this article is to systematise and determine the specifics of the diplomatic activity of Poland-Lithuania from the institutional and juridical point of view, with particular attention paid to the nature of the ius legationis which operated in Rzeczpospolita state. Its two potential entities are confronted: the king and the Senate along with the sejm. The analysis is based primarily on the parliamentary constitutions, the supreme source of law for the Polish-Lithuanian state. Another goal of the presented study is to highlight the role of political practice in shaping foreign policy, which often stood in opposition to the formal legal structure of the Commonwealth. Finally, the article constitutes a discussion with the voices present in the historiography and an invitation for the scholars to fur
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The diplomatic mission of Melchior von Ruck. The financial relationships between the Spanish Monarchy and Brandenburg-Prussia (Splendid Encounters 5: Diplomats and Diplomacy in the Early Modern World: Diplomatic Personnel)
Ondrej Lee Stolicka
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Ambassador Count Nikolaus Esterházy: Languages and Network-Building in St Petersburg, 1753-1761
Olga Khavanova
2023
This article scrutinizes the patterns of written and oral communication of the imperial and Austrian ambassador to St Petersburg, Count Nikolaus (Miklós) Esterházy. He was the first Hungarian aristocrat to secure a diplomatic career, representing the House of Austria and the Holy Roman Empire at several European courts, including Saxony, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Spain, and Russia. Only a few of his autographs in German and French survive. Esterházy's biography, however, proves that he was fluent in these languages and additionally mastered the basics of written Latin and (at least) spoken Hungarian. Furthermore, the article illustrates how the Austrian mission in St Petersburg functioned in the middle of the eighteenth century and what languages were used in correspondence with the imperial vice chancellor and state chancellor. It also shows what languages diplomats needed to be proficient in to manage incoming and outgoing correspondence and how present-day historians use the private archives of the diplomat, which preserve most documents processed by the mission in their completeness and variety. Attention is paid to the diplomat's principal counterparts at the Russian court-Empress Elizabeth, Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna, Alexei P. Bestuzhev-Riumin, Mikhail I. Vorontsov, and Petr I. Shuvalov. During his stay in Russia, Esterházy followed the existing practices of writing dispatches to Vienna and communicating with the College of International Affairs in St Peterburg in German. Although it is not always clear if he used German or French at the Russian court, he was flexible enough to use both for acquiring information and gaining favors.
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The political Development of Habsburgs’ Courts through John of Austria and official and unofficial Agents (1665-1679)
Koldo Trapaga Monchet
The death of Philip IV of Spain in 1665 meant an inflection point in the political attitude of his illegitimate son John of Austria. Since his stay at the court of Brussels (1656-1659), John came into conflict with the Imperial family of Vienna, who did not agree to treat him as an Infant of Spain. These problems of acknowledgment increased during the minority of Charles II, John’s stepbrother. The contacts of John with the Imperial ambassador Pötting were frustrating for both sides, as neither of the two accepted the treatment demanded by the other. Therefore, the relationships were carried out through unofficial interviews of informal agents of John as Francisco Bremundan, Diego de Velasco or Mateo Patiño with different representatives of the Imperial embassy. The chief topic discussed was the negotiation to marry King Charles II to Archduchess Maria Antonia of Austria. This was the desired plan of Dowager Queen Marianne of Austria, but when John became ‘First Minister’ in 1677, he changed the political line developed until that time. John distrusted the alliance with his Viennese family and preferred to arrange the marriage of Charles II with the French Maria Luisa of Orleans. The aim of this paper is to show how unofficial diplomacy was used by John of Austria for the advancement of his own interests and its influence in the policy-making between the Habsburgs’ Courts between 1665 and 1679.
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